Tony Malone & Saint Oxen Books
A New Biblical King Chronology
Part 6: Archaeological Corroboration
Tony Malone December 2004
1) EGYPT: Stele of Pharaoh Merenptah (1223 - 1211 BCE) mentions Israel
Translation: Documents From Old Testament Times pg 137
Merenptah tells of driving certain peoples out of Egypt, making Egypt safe and happy again, and taking Canaan and doing damage to the victims' home countries to teach them a lesson. It finishes with:
"The princes [of the driven-out and conquered peoples] lie prostrate, saying "Salaam!". Not one lifts his head among the Nine Bows. Destruction for Tehenu! Hatti is pacified; Canaan is plundered with every evil; Ashkelon is taken; Gezer is captured; Yanoam is made non-existent. Israel lies desolate, its seed is no more; Hurru has become a widow for To-meri. All the lands in their entirety are at peace. Everyone who was a nomad has been curbed by King Merenptah."
Notes:
This is very interesting. What would Israel have been in 1215 BCE? Is that date even reliable? According to conventional historical belief, Moses brought his Israelites into Canaan right around this time. There would have been no territory known as "Israel" to be laid desolate. Some scholars hold that the Exodus occurred much earlier. Maybe it did, allowing time for an "Israel" to develop before Merenptah demolished it. Or was the enslavement-and-exodus story a fake? Was there always a band of tribes in Canaan called "Israel"? Were they actually never in Egypt?
2 EGYPT & THE BIBLE
2) EGYPT & THE BIBLE: c965 - 955 BCE, Jeroboam (1Kings 11:40) and Rehoboam (1Kings 14:25-26) both deal with Shishak, king of Egypt
Notes:
According to E.A. Wallis Budge's The Mummy (published c1890) pg 50, the dynasty that began with Sheshanq (Shishak) ran from c966 - 800 BCE, comprising Sheshanq I, II, III and IV, among other kings.
According to the Bible, King Solomon's labour captain Jeroboam ran to Egypt and hid because Solomon feared him and wanted to kill him. He went there sometime around 963-962 BCE (by the dates on our chart), and was given asylum by Shishak/Sheshanq (1Kings 11:40). Whether or not Jeroboam was personally protected by the king or simply found asylum in Egypt is unclear. Sheshanq had just begun reigning a few years earlier, in 966; perhaps before he was king, he and Jeroboam had had business or military dealings.
Shortly after Jeroboam went to Egypt, Solomon died and his son Rehoboam was taking power over the Northern and Southern kingdoms. Jeroboam went back to challenge him, and took control of the Northern territory in 961. Rehoboam's control was from then on confined to the Southern kingdom. In Rehoboam's fifth year of rule, 957, Sheshanq raided Jerusalem and stole all of Rehoboam's treasure (1Kings 14:25-26). He didn't do that to the Northern kingdom. Jeroboam and Sheshanq seem to have been friends.
Considering that Mr. Budge's estimates were made more than a century ago, and considering that these dates take us back nearly three thousand years, it is quite amazing to see how well they correspond.
3 ASSYRIA
3) ASSYRIA: Shalmaneser III (858 - 824) says he fought Ahab's 200 chariots and conquered Jehu - archaeologists place his Battle of Qarqar in 853 BCE
Translation: Documents From Old Testament Times pg 46
"I departed from Aleppo and drew near to the two towns of Irbuleni of Hamath: Adennu and Barga. I captured the town of Argana, his royal residence, and took out fine booty, the movable and immovable goods of his palaces. I set fire to his palaces. I departed from Argana and drew near to Qarqar, and then demolished, destroyed and burned down Qarqar, his royal residence. 1200 chariots, 1200 cavalry horses, 20,000 men belonging to Adad-idri of Damascus, 700 chariots, 700 cavalry, 10,000 men of Irbuleni the Hamathite, 200 chariots and 10,000 men of Ahab the Israelite, 500 men from Cilicia, 1000 men of Musru, 10 chariots, 10.000 men of Uqanata, 200 men of Matinu-ba'ali the Arvadite, 200 men of Usantu, 30 chariots, 10.000 men of Adunu-ba'ali of Shizana, 1000 camels of Gidinbu of Arabia, ...000 men of Ba'asa, son of Ruhubi of Ammon - these were the twelve kings who came to help him. They came directly toward me in close battle. With the superior aid which Ashur the lord had given, and with the mighty weapons which Nergal, my leader, had gifted me, I fought with them. From Qarqar to Gilzau I defeated them. I smote 14,000 of the men with the weapons, falling upon them like Adad pouring down a hailstorm. I flung their bodies about, filling the plain with their scattered soldiery.
"In my eighteenth regnal year I crossed the river Euphrates for the sixteenth time. Hazael of Aram put his faith in the numerical strength of his army and called out his army in great numbers. He made Sanir, a mountain peak which stands out in front of the Lebanon his strong position. I fought with him and defeated him, smiting with weapons 16,000 of his experienced troops. I snatched away from him 1,121 of his chariots and 470 of his cavalry horses together with his baggage train. He went off to save his life. I went after him and surrounded him in Damascus his capital city. I cut down his plantations, marched as far as the mountains of the Hauran. I destroyed, tore down and burnt with fire numberless villages, carrying away innumerable spoil from them.. I marched as far as the mountains of Ba'ali-ra'si, a headland by the sea, and put up on it a representation of my royal person. At that time I received the tribute of the people of Tyre, Sidon, and of Jehu son of Omri."
(Black Obelisk inscription)
"The tribute of Jehu son of Omri: Silver, gold, a golden bowl, a golden vase, golden cups, golden buckets, tin, a staff for the royal hand, puru-hati fruits"
(Black Obelisk superscriptionm accompanies picture of Jehu, or someone, bringing tribute)
Notes:
The name Ahab isn't in this inscription. The name actually says: Aha-abbu Sirila-a-a. It is curious that scholars have decided this means Ahab the Israelite. The argument hasn't been settled, but we will treat this as an authentic mention of Ahab and deal with it.
According to our chart, Ahab reigned 905-884, and Jehu reigned 874-847. Eleven years separated their reigns, and they probably never met each other. Shalmaneser apparently reigned in Assyria from 858-824; his reign began about twenty-five years after Ahab's death. He wouldn't know Ahab, but he would have met Jehu.
Scholars take Shalmaneser's reference to Ahab's chariots to mean that he dealt directly with Ahab, but he doesn't say that, and it isn't necessary that Shalmaneser met Ahab, even if he does mention his name. Considering the fame that Ahab's charioteers seem to have garnered even after their leader's death (see below entry 9), Ahab's military organization likely wore his name proudly for as long as they continued to exist, and surely gained a psychological edge over their opponents by using this fame. Shalmaneser may have dealt with "200 chariots and 10,000 men of Ahab", but he didn't meet Ahab.
Furthermore, Shalmaneser was campaigning against Syria. The inscription implies that Ahab himself was there fighting against Shalmaneser, for Syria. But Ahab, during his whole reign, was constantly at war with Syria, and if Shalmaneser had come in to attack, Ahab would not have shown up to stop Shalmaneser. He would have stood back and enjoyed the show. If Shalmaneser's mention of Ahab's chariots and men is genuine, and "Ahab's" men were in battle as allies with Syria, it couldn't have been during Ahab's reign or even immediately after. Ahab's son Jehoram continued his wars against Syria until a battle left him wounded and vulnerable to Jehu's attack (Kings 8:28). Shalmaneser had this war at a time well after the deaths of Ahab and his sons, at some other time when an alliance between Israel and Syria was possible.
Shalmaneser did not deal with Ahab and he doesn't claim that he did. He does claim to have subjected Jehu, though, and their reigns do intersect from 858 to 847. Nearly twenty years earlier, in 874, Jehu had taken the Northern throne (after murdering both the Northern and Southern kings; meanwhile, in the south, Athalia had murdered all the heirs apparent and taken the Southern throne). Starting in 858, he had to deal with Shalmaneser for eleven years, and Jehu's reign ended right after that. Shalmaneser could well have subjected Jehu during that time.
The only problem is that it appears Shalmaneser claims to have subjected Jehu in his (Shalmaneser's) eighteenth year of reign (840). After listing his accomplishments for his "eighteenth regnal year", including a successful battle with Syrian Hazael, he casually mentions (among other things) that he exacted tribute from Jehu. If it were Shalmaneser's eighth year (850) instead of his eighteenth, that would have worked. At that point Jehu still had three years left to reign. Shalmaneser could have arrested Jehu and taken him prisoner, accounting for the end of his reign.
Could this mention of Jehu's tribute have referred to an earlier event that was simply being entered into the royal log at a later date? Are we sure it was Shalmaneser's eighteenth year when this happened and not his eighth? Shalmaneser dealt with Jehu and could have subjected him any time between 858 and 847 (Jehu was gone after that). Shalmaneser's inference that it happened in his eighteenth year (840) unfortunately doesn't work with our list, but at least they did reign at the same time.
4 SYRIA
4) SYRIA: Tell Dan inscription c850 BCE - too fragmented to be of value
The authors of The Bible Unearthed (pp 19, 129, 177) credit this inscription to Syrian king Hazael, and they believe he is taking credit for murdering the two Israelite kings that Jehu killed (Jehoram and Ahaziah). But these text fragments are so incomplete that extrapolation is necessary to make them mean anything at all.
"[I killed Jeho]ram son of [Ahab] king of Israel, and [I] killed [Ahaz]iahu son of [Jehoram kin]g of the House of David. And I set [their towns into ruins and turned] their land into [desolation]."
This last reading is convenient for anyone who needs it to say this. But without all the scholarly interpolations, this inscription says nothing:
"...ram son of ... king of Israel, and ... killed ...iahu son of ...g of the House of David. And I set ... their land into..."
This inscription offers little of value except for the confirmation that the "House of David" was recognized by Syria as existing.
5 SYRIA
5) SYRIA: c840 BCE, Ivory from Arslan Tash dedicated to Hazael
Quote from The Development of Aramaic Script by Joseph Naveh 1970, pg 17, published by The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanism, Jerusalem
After reviewing a series of five clay tablets from Nineveh with Aramaic endorsements, and comparing the scripts and the difficulty in dating them when several script styles are used on one tablet, the author writes:
"To these we may add a gypsum tablet from Arslan Tash of the seventh century BCE bearing an incantation text incised in the Phoenecian or Hebrew language, but in an Aramaic script similar to that of the other clay tablets.
The clay tablets appear to be of prime paleographic importance, not only because of the paucity of other material in this period, but also because most of them are dated precisely. Even so, it is difficult to rely on them; in most instances both cursive and lapidary styles occur on the same tablet, and only seldom the scribe adhered to one of the two styles. The Nairab tablets are written in lapidary; the Starcky tablet represents the cursive of 570 BCE; while the others of this group, including the Arslan tash incantation tablet, mix lapidary and cursive."
Notes:
This tablet, dedicated to Syrian king Hazael, confirms the existence of that king and nothing else. The generally accepted date for this artifact, c840 BCE, is comfortable with our list, although the dedication could have been written anytime, and Mr. Naveh's work demonstrates the difficulty in settling on any date for this inscription.
In the Old Testament, Hazael appears during the reign of Northern Jehoram, and dies during the reign of Northern Jehoash. This time spread would be from c885 to c817 BCE. The inscription's tentative date, c840, works with this, and even works with the older lists - which place Hazael's activity at c850 to c790 BCE. But the Bible itself is entirely suspect here. This tells us that Hazael bothered Israel for about seventy years! Did he even reign that long? The Biblical writers must have been off on this. It appears they simply attributed all troubles with their Syrian neighbours over a long period to just one Syrian king whose name they remembered.
Unfortunately, Syrian ancient history is mainly holes - there are no king lists, few monuments, and that people's story is shrouded in mystery because they left so little for us to examine. The Bible does not fix the record at all, spreading Hazael's menace vaguely across seven decades, adding equally ambiguous historical information about the few other Syrian kings who figure in the stories. It appears Hazael existed, and from this tablet that's all we can know for sure. The inscription does not affect our dates in any way.
6 MOAB
6) MOAB: Moabite Stone dated c830 BCE - King Mesha tells of Omri's and Ahab's aggressive occupation of Moab, drives out Ahab's family and the tribe of Gadites
- believed to be toward the end of Mesha's reign.
Translation: Documents From Old Testament Times pg 195
"I am Mesha, son of Chemosh ... king of Moab, the Dibonite. My father was king over Moab thirty years and I became king after my father. And I made this sanctuary for Chemosh at Qrchh; salvation, for he saved me from all the kings and let me see my desire upon my adversaries. Omri, king of Israel, he oppressed Moab many days, for Chemosh was angry with his land. And his son succeeded him and he too said "I will oppress Moab". In my days he spoke [thus], and I saw my desire upon him and upon his house, when Israel perished utterly forever. And Omri had taken possession of the land of Medeba and dwelt in it his days and half the days of his son, forty years. But Chemosh dwelt in it my days. And I built Baal-meon and made in it the reservoir and I built Qaryaten.
And the men of Gad had long dwelt in the land of Ataroth, and the king of Israel had built Ataroth for himself. But I fought against the town and took it and I slew all the people of the town, a spectacle of Chemosh and Moab. And I brought back from there the altar-hearth of David and I dragged it before Chemosh at Qerioth. And I settled there the men of Sharon and the men of Mchrt. And Chemosh said to me "Go take Nebo against Israel." And I went by night and fought against it from the break of dawn 'til noon, and I took it and slew all; seven thousand men, boys, women and [girls] and female slaves, for I had consecrated it to Ashtar-Chemosh. And I took from there the vessels of Yahweh and dragged them before Chemosh. And the king of Israel had built Jahaz, and he dwelt in it while fighting against me. But Chemosh drove him out before me. And I took from Moab 200 men, all of them leaders, and led them up against Jahaz and took it to annex it to Dibon. I Built Qrchh, the walls of the parks and the walls of the mound; and I built its gates and I built its towers; and I built the king's house; and I made both the reservoirs for water inside the town.
And there was no cistern inside the town at Qrchh, so I said to all the people, "Make yourselves each a cistern in his house." And I had ditches dug for Qrchh by prisoners of Israel. I built Aroer and I made the road by Arnon. I built Beth-Bamoth for it was destroyed; I built Bezer for it was in ruins, with fifty men of Dibon, for all Dibon is under my authority; and I reigned over hundreds of towns which I had annexed to the country. And I built ... Medeba and Beth-Diblathen and Beth-Baal-meon, and I led up there the breeders of the sheep of the land. And as for Hauronen, there dwelt in it ... Chemosh said to me "Go down, fight against Hauronen" And I went down ... in Chemosh in my days ... from there ... and I ..."
Notes:
According to our chart, Omri reigned over a partial Northern territory from 916-912. He then reigned over the whole Northern territory from 912-901. Ahab his son began his reign in 905, five years before the end of dad's reign, and after Omri's death he stayed in power until 884. Scholars believe Mesha's inscription was made c830 BCE, and that it was done toward the end of Mesha's reign.
Mesha says that his country was illegally occupied by Omri and his son Ahab for decades, and claims that he himself heard Ahab slandering the Moabite people. It is Ahab's son Jehoram who he went to war against. Mesha says that he finished off the House of Omri himself, and ruined Israel. But in the Bible it was Jehu who was credited with ending the House of Omri, in 874, when he murdered two kings (Northern Jehoram, a grandson of Omri; and Southern Ahaziah, a great-grandson of Omri). Were Mesha and Jehu working together? Jehu must have had some help to murder fifty or so royal family members from two kingdoms and take the throne of one of them. Was Mesha king of Moab at that time? That would be almost fifty years before the supposed writing of the stele. Some of the Biblical kings are credited with reigns of similar lengths.
A possible timeline: In 905, Ahab occupies Moab. Mesha is six years old. He grows up always aware of the occupying power, full of hatred for them. In 884, when Ahab dies, Mesha is a twenty-eight year old man who has seen and heard Ahab's slanderous attitude his whole life.
The Bible and Mesha agree that Moab's revolt occurs after the death of Ahab (2Kings 1:1). That would mean that sometime in the eleven year period between 884 (Ahab's death) and 874 (when Jehu took the throne), Mesha becomes king of Moab and goes to work wreaking revenge on Israel. He drives out the remainder of Omri's family and the Israelite tribe of Gadites*. In 874, when Mesha is about thirty-seven years old, Jehu takes control of the Northern Israelite kingdom, Ahab's throne, apparently with Mesha's help.
About forty years after that, around 833 and at the age of seventy-eight, Mesha dictates his life story to a secretary, and a stele is erected by 830. The numbers are all plausible.
Did Mesha help Jehu to destroy the house of Omri, assisting Jehu in the murder of the two kings and their relatives? Did he help Athalia to take the Southern throne? Athalia appears to have killed all her own sons and nephews, conspiring with Jehu who was killing the rest of her family. She was a granddaughter of Omri (2Kings 8:26); a daughter of Ahab; mother of the murdered Southern Ahaziah; sister of the murdered Northern Jehoram. Her family was wiped out and she apparently took part.
Did Mesha do this to have revenge on the royal family that had been occupying his country for decades? It would be interesting to find that the Moabite king played a part in the downfall of both the Northern and Southern Israelite kingdoms to have this revenge.
The political situation: Ahab's family and the tribe of Gadites were driven out of Moab (were Omri and Ahab Gadites?). Jehu made a coup of the Northern government, murdering King Jehoram and all of Omri's descendants (2Kings 9:24 & 10:1-11) and taking the Northern throne. He also executed most of the Southern government - murdering King Ahaziah and forty-two of his relatives (2Kings 9:27 & 10:12-14). The Southern work was finished by Athalia (the murdered Ahaziah's mother) who killed all of Ahaziah's heirs (her grandsons!) and took the throne herself (2Kings 11:1-3). Around this time, Southern Jehoram (Athalia's husband) also died (the Bible gives no details on how or why - 1Kings 8:22-25). Mesha could rightly say that "Israel perished utterly forever". The Israel known up until that time was definitely over. Mesha's tale works beautifully with our dates, and contributes real intrigue.
*The Bible tells a wild story of how the Israelites (Northern and Southern kingdoms, along with some Edomite allies) attacked Moab in an attempt to stop Mesha's rebellion and keep the Moabites subject. We are asked to believe that they attacked from the south (!). That would be an enormous waste of traveling and energy - Ahab's towns were just north of Moab; all they had to do was cross the Jordan River and they'd be there. Anyway, we're told that in the attack the Israelites ruined Moabite farm lands by covering them with thousands of stones, stopped up their drinking wells, and tore down all their trees. The Bible pretends that the Israelites were victorious in fully destroying Moab, but then claims that Mesha sacrificed one of his children to his god Chemosh, which caused the Israelites to be overthrown. The writer exposes atrocious Israelite behaviour toward their neighbours, but still wants us to believe that Moab was bad, and that the only reason the Israelites lost was because of a child sacrifice (2Kings 3:4-27).
7 ASSYRIA & THE BIBLE
7) ASSYRIA & THE BIBLE: c760 BCE
"Pul the king of Assyria came against the land; and Menahem gave Pul a thousand talents of silver, that he might help him to confirm his hold of the royal power." (2Kings 15:19)
Notes:
Menahem reigned from 766-757, so the Assyrian king he must have dealt with would be either Ashur-Dan III (773-755) or Ashur-Nirari V (755-745). The Assyrians do not list any king named Pul, though they seem to refer to Tiglath-Pileser III as "Pulu" in some texts. We don't know if "Pulu" was some kind of title used for other kings as well, but Tiglath-Pileser III's reign (745-727) didn't coincide with Menahem's. Because we can't really know who "Pul" was, and since Tiglath does not fit here, we can see that whoever was writing this part of the story may not have known who actually invaded, and they may have just used a common king's nickname to cover the lack of data.
8 ASSYRIA
8) ASSYRIA: Tiglath-Pileser III (745 - 727) mentions Israel and its kings
Translation: Documents From Old Testament Times pg 53
Tiglath-Pileser describes his interventions in Syria and down the Mediterranean coast (743-732 BCE). Though the text is fragmented, clear mentions of Israel and two of its kings are made:
"... Bit-Humria [House of Omri = Israel] ... the total of its inhabitants I led off to Assyria. Pekah their king they deposed and Hoshea I set over them. I received from them as their [tribute?] ten talents of gold and ... talents of silver ..."
In another section Tiglath-Pileser lists the kings of various subject lands, then tells of the tributes he required of them. Among the kings and subject lands he lists "Jehoahaz of Judah".
Notes:
Tiglath-Pileser (745-727) claims that during his famous raid down the Mediterranean coast c743-732 BCE, Northern Israel threw out their king Pekah. Pekah's twenty year reign on our list came to an end in 734. Tiglath's claim does not conflict with our dates. (The conventional lists tend to sacrifice Pekah, reducing his reign to just three or four years, c735-732, but they do make sure that he falls in line with Pileser's takeover).
However, Tiglath claims he then set Hoshea on the Northern throne. Remember that there was only a faulty cross reference to support Hoshea reigning immediately after Pekah, from 733-727. It was his later reign that we settled on, 726-718. But now we have a claim that Hoshea was placed on the Northern throne by Tiglath-Pileser when Pekah was removed. According to our new list, Hoshea should have begun his rule around 726. That was at the very end of Tiglath's reign, according to Assyriologists (745-727). Tiglath could well have installed Hoshea around that time. Who knows what went on for the seven years between Pekah and Hoshea? Tiglath's people may have run the Northern provinces during that period until they found a worthy puppet to install. The Bible actually credits Hoshea with murdering Pekah (2Kings 15:30) and taking his throne. His background is unknown. He may have been a mercenary who worked for Tiglath-Pileser and who was eventually rewarded (for his murder of Pekah, perhaps among other things) with kingship. A little while later, according to the Bible, Shalmaneser V (727-722) removed Hoshea and imprisoned him for awhile (for attempting to conspire with Egypt) before finally demolishing the Northern kingdom (2Kings 17:4-6). Hoshea, murderer of Pekah, couldn't be trusted even by his mercenary employers. This minor riddle, concerning when and how much the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser had to do with Hoshea's kingship, will have to be left unsolved.
Tiglath also says he subjected "Jehoahaz of Judah". This doesn't make sense. On our list, Southern Jehoahaz ruled for only three months in 607 BCE, more than a century after the time of Tiglath-Pileser. Northern Jehoahaz reigned from 846-830, a century before Tiglath. Even on conventional lists neither falls anywhere near the time of Tiglath's victories. If Pileser wanted to claim subjection of a Southern king, he should have mentioned Jotham (752-737), Ahaz (737-722) or Hezekiah (724-696), all of whom were his contemporaries. He likely was referring to Ahaz. Adding "Jeho" (the name of the Israelite god) to the beginning of Ahaz makes it Jehoahaz, and Tiglath-Pileser may have known him by that name (most Assyrian kings also included a god's name in their titles). The reigns of Tiglath-Pileser and Ahaz were concurrent for five or six years. This part of the reference works.
9 ASSYRIA
9) ASSYRIA: Sargon II (722 - 705 BCE) supplies proof that Israel was famous for its chariot forces
Quote from The Bible Unearthed, Israel Finklestein and Neil Silberman 2001, pg 211
"But perhaps the most indicative association of Israelites with military horsemanship comes from a period immediately after the conquest of the northern kingdom by Assyria - when a special Israelite chariot unit was incorporated into the Assyrian army. In fact, the research of Stephanie Dalley on Assyrian tablets called the "horse lists" provides information on officials, officers and units in the Assyrian army in the days of Sargon II. These records indicate that while other specialized troops from conquered regions were incorporated into the Assyrian army as individuals, the Israelite chariot brigade was the only foreign unit permitted to retain its national identity. The Assyrian king Sargon II says it best: "I formed a unit with 200 of their chariots for my royal force."
"It would seem, therefore, that because Israelite charioteers were so famous for their skill, they were allowed a special status. Among other details in the horse lists was mention of an Israelite commander named Shema, probably from the chariot corps, who served in a high post in the Assyrian army and was a member of the king's entourage."
Notes:
The impressive chariot force that Ahab built during his reign (905-884 BCE) became a common part of Israelite defense forces, and nearly two centuries later it appears they were hiring themselves out as mercenary fighters for foreign armies, still carrying enough power in their name to command certain perks that others apparently weren't entitled to.
10 ASSYRIA
10) ASSYRIA: Sargon II (722 - 705 BCE) captures Samaria
Translation: Documents From Old Testament Times pg 58
"I surrounded and captured the city of Samaria. 27,290 of the people who dwelt in it I took away as prisoners. From among them I equipped fifty chariots and made the rest of them take up positions. I set over them my official and imposed on them tribute of the former king. Hanunu, king of Gaza, and Sib'e, the commander in chief of Egypt, advanced to Rapihu to make a direct attack and to battle with me. I defeated them. Sib'e fled, taking fright on hearing the din of my weapons, and disappeared. I personally captured Hanunu king of Gaza. I received tribute from Pir'u of Musuru, Samsi queen of Arabia, and from It'amar the Sabaean - gold dust, horses and camels."
Notes:
This is more confirmation of the fall of the Northern provinces toward the end of the 8th century. It doesn't conflict with our new dates. However, it is interesting to note that the Bible credits Tiglath-Pileser (745-727) with the initial victory over Samaria, as well as the crowning of Hoshea; and credits Shalmaneser V (727-722) with its total destruction and the arrest of Hoshea; just before Sargon (722-705) came to power. Some archaeologists seem to think that Sargon II was a liar who regularly took credit for others' accomplishments, and that may be. But his reign occurs immediately after the takeover by Tiglath and Shalmaneser, and he surely carried on their work, doing his part to make life hell for the Northern Israelites. And Hoshea's reign ends in 718, during Sargon's reign. Perhaps it was Sargon who arrested Hoshea, and not Shalmaneser.
Sargon's statements don't affect our list, or even the old lists. Assyria did take Samaria down at this time. There is no particular conflict for us, other than the argument between Assyrian kings about who should get personal credit.
11 ASSYRIA
11) ASSYRIA: Sennacherib (704-681 BCE) mentions Hezekiah
History of Sennacherib from the Koyunjuk Bulls inscription
Quoted from Records of the Past Vol 7 pg 59
Translation by J.M. Rodwell, publisher Samuel Bagster and Sons, 12 volumes, c1876
(vv 22-32) - Sennacherib is referring to his expeditions down the Mediterranean coast, specifically including Sidonia and the Gaza area:
"The governors and the population of the city who Padi their king, an ally of Assyria, with a chain of iron had bound and to Hezekiah King of Judah had delivered him, the shadows of death overwhelmed them. The kings of Egypt gathered archers, chariots and horses of the King of Meroe, a force without number. Under the walls of Albaku I fought with them, and effected their overthrow. The commander of the chariots, the sons of the Egyptian kings together with the commanders of the chariots of the King of Meroe alive my hand captured. To Ekron I approached; and the princes who rebellion had brought about, I slew with the sword; the sons of the city who had thus behaved to me I treated as prey. The rest of them who had done nothing (amiss) I proclaimed as innocent. Padi their king I brought forth from the midst of Jerusalem and on the throne I set over them, and fixed upon him the tribute due to my dominion. Hezekiah King of Judah did not submit to my yoke; forty-six of his cites, strong fortresses and cities of their territory which were without number, I besieged, I captured, I plundered, and counted as spoil. Himself I made like a caged bird in the midst of Jerusalem the city of his royalty; garrison towers over against him I raised. His cities which I had plundered, from the midst of his country I separated, and to the kings of Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron and Gaza I made them over, and diminished his land. In addition to previous taxes, I imposed upon them a donation from their own resources as tribute. Hezekiah himself the fear of the approach of my majesty overwhelmed, and his urbi and his own soldiers and the [other] soldiers whom he had caused to enter Jerusalem his royal city. He consented to the payment of tribute: 30 talents of gold, 800 talents of silver, the bullion the treasure of his palace, his daughters the women of his palace, male musicians and female musicians, to within Nineveh the city of my power he caused to carry and for the payment of the tribute he sent his messenger."
Notes:
Hezekiah had King Padi, prince of Ekron and an ally of Assyria, brought to Jerusalem in chains. Sennacherib liberated Padi and punished Hezekiah and his people, leveling the lands of the Southern kingdom and returning a bunch of cities to the peoples from whom the Israelites had stolen them.
Assyriologists say that Sennacherib reigned from 704-681 BCE. On our list Hezekiah reigns from 724-696. He was king of Judah for two decades before Sennacherib came to power. After a few years of Sennacherib's campaign of destruction down the Mediterranean coast, Hezekiah rebelled and was punished mercilessly for it. It looks like Hezekiah asked for it, though, if he was out stealing land (Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron and Gaza), kidnapping other people's leaders (Padi of Ekron), and defying powerful armies (the Assyrians). He had to be trounced.
The Bible claims that Sennacherib's invasion happened in Hezekiah's fourteenth year (711) and that is a conflict, but Sennacherib of course doesn't mention Hezekiah's fourteenth year as the year he invaded, and so this archaeology generally supports our dates, as the two of them did reign at the same time.
At this point our dates for the last kings of Judah are falling into line with the old lists, which generally place Hezekiah around 727-698.
12 ASSYRIA & EGYPT & THE BIBLE
12) ASSYRIA & EGYPT & THE BIBLE: c720 BCE
2Kings 17:1-6 Hoshea (726-718) stops tribute to Assyria and sends to "So" king of Egypt for help. Shalmaneser III (727-722) arrests Hoshea and beseiges Samaria for three years, carrying away many Israelites from the Northern kingdom. He places them in the city of Halah, and along the river Habor, and in the cities of the Medes.
Notes:
According to Egyptian records (The Mummy by E.A. Wallis Budge), Shabakah/ Sabaco of Ethiopia was the 1st king of the 25th dynasty of Egypt (c700 BCE - takeover of Egypt by Ethiopia). He is usually identified as the Biblical "So"; he was a contemporary of Sargon II (722-705), but not Shalmaneser, and was about twenty years too late for Hoshea. The Biblical author has again given us a name of a foreign king for whom scholars have to guess the identity. The 24th Egyptian dynasty only lists one king, Baken-ren-f (aka Bocchoris), who reigned c733 for a few years. The rest of that dynasty, leading to the Ethiopian takeover c700, is mysterious, but that is the period when Hoshea and Shalmaneser reigned. "So" may just be a name made up by the Biblical author to cover a lack of information.
13 ASSYRIA & EGYPT & THE BIBLE
13) ASSYRIA & EGYPT & THE BIBLE: c700 BCE
2Kings 18:13-25 Sennacherib besieges Judah in 701, sends threats to Hezekiah. Aside from the "Hezekiah's fourteenth year" problem, this reference makes sense.
2Kings 19:8-37 A second set of threats is issued while Sennacherib is fighting against Libnah (in Judah); Tirhaka king of Ethiopia is mentioned.
Isaiah 36:1 - 39:8 is practically identical to 2Kings 18:13 - 20:19
Notes:
Tirhaka of Ethiopia killed Shabataka (son of Shabakah) and took the Egyptian throne c693 BCE. He made alliances with the Phoenecians of Tyre and, according to the Bible, Hezekiah. Tirhaka was then driven out of Egypt by the Assyrians, who occupied Egypt. Tirhaka returned after the death of Esarhaddon (681-669), but new Assyrian king Assurbanipal (669-627) chased him back out and south to Nubia.
Niku, governor of Memphis, led a rebellion against the Assyrian overlords, but he was arrested for it and taken to Assyria. At that time Tirhakah returned again to Egypt and gained new ground. Now Niku, who had switched alliances, was sent back by Assurbanipal to destroy Tirhakah and rule Egypt under Assyria. Tirhaka died during Niku's reign.
Once again the Biblical author has given us information that doesn't quite make sense. Tirhaka took power four or five years after the demise of Hezekiah
A version of this piece of the story was edited into the Book of Isaiah. In a separate thesis ("Cracking Isaiah") I explore the reasons for this.
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